Around 50-55 million years ago, in the geological past, a triangle of rocky land broke off from East Africa, drifted north in the Indian Ocean, and crashed into Eurasia.The immense force of the collision crumpled the Eurasian Plate, pushing up the landmasses to form the mighty Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
This collision continues to this day, contributing to the ongoing growth of these awe-inspiring mountain ranges. While the Himalayas rose in the north, the Deccan Plateau in central India was formed due to volcanic activity. The remaining forces sculpted the diverse landscapes of peninsular India. Over millions of years, rivers like the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra carved fertile plains and deltas, nurturing life and shaping the unique geography of the subcontinent. The first attempts to study the Stone Age in India, though begun over 150 years ago were of a casual and fragmentary character. India has progressed greatly in Prehistoric studies. After the proclamation of independence in 1947 there were great changes in the Archaeological studies of the Stone Age in India. In recent decades indigenous Archaeologists have been trained and an Indian school of Archaeology with its own methods of investigation has been established. Today there exists a wide range of Archaeological Institutions in India along with a large number of Research Centres and Museums, coordinated by the Archaeology Department of India.
India is the home of one of the world's 'great' civilizations - its social structure as it exists today can be traced back thousands of years and empires of great size and complexity existed here far earlier than anything comparable. Even the mightiest of India's ancient civilizations did not encompass all of modern India and today it is still as much a country of diversities as of unities. Beyond India's own history and development, its role as the birthplace of two of the world's great religions is enough to ensure its historical importance.
Homoerectus Narmadensis (Narmada Human)
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Narmada Human, from the Narmada Valley, 5th longest river and overall longest west-flowing in central India Maharashtra state, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago. Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat now in Pakistan.
The Indus Valley Civilization
Until 1920, the Aryan culture dating back to 1500 BC was thought to be India’s oldest civilization. But in 1921, archaeologists unearthed the ruins of an entire city, buried along the banks of the Indus River in North-west India, showing that India’s civilization went back much further—to 2300 BC . The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization This city, Harappa and Mohenjo daro, now fall inside the Pakistan border. Unearthing these two towns showed excavators glimpses into the richness of the Indus Valley civilization, evidenced in ruins and things like household articles, war weapons, gold and silver ornament - and so on. The people of the Indus Valley civilization lived in well-planned towns and well-designed houses made of baked bricks. The Indus valley people who lived in these cities were as advanced as the ancient Egyptians. At about the same time as the pyramids were raised, they were constructing elaborate cities, complete with drainage systems, public baths, storehouses, granaries, and religious buildings. They traded with people from the Persian Gulf and with the Sumerians who lived in present-day Iraq. Indian history begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization .
Along with the Mesopotamian civilization and the Egyptian civilization, rose the Indus Valley civilization spanning Northwest India and modern-day Pakistan. The largest amongst the three civilizations, the Indus Valley civilization flourished around 2600 BC, at which time agriculture in India started flourishing. The fertile Indus valley made it possible for agriculture to be carried out on a large scale. In an era of development and prosperity, civilization, unfortunately, came to an end by around 1300 BC, mainly due to natural calamities. Or Their script has still not been deciphered, nor is it known why such an advanced civilization collapsed so quickly with the invasion of the Aryans.
Early Invasions
The early Aryan invasions were vague and disjointed, although the people of north India today are defined as Aryans and those of the south as Dravidians. The Aryans came from the north from around 1500 BC and gradually spread across India from the Punjab and Sind (now in Pakistan) and down the Ganges towards Bengal. The Rise of two great religions had their birth on the sub-continent - Buddhism and Hinduism. The Hindu religion is one of the oldest in the world. Even the priest-dominated Indus Valley civilization bears many similarities to Hinduism.
Vedic Civilization (c.1500 – c.500 BCE)
The next era that India saw was that of the Vedic civilization. The earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to date this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical information contained in the hymns. The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE. Historically, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which occurred around 1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The Indo-Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. The Indo-Iranians originated in the Sintashta culture, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon. The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent Bactria–Margiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan) to northwest India, followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture at 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c. 800 BCE.
The highly evolved Harappan culture was followed by the arrival of a wave of nomadic tribes. The Aryans, as they are called, came from Central Asia and settled in the plains of the Indus and Ganges rivers. We know about the Aryan culture mainly through the Vedas, a collection of hymns that tells us about the life of the people, their gods, and the evolution of their society into a distinct caste system. The Vedas were composed in Sanskrit, and are still chanted in Hindu religious ceremonies. In the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (c.1500–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation, which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain c.600 BCE. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred.
Buddhist Era
Next came the Buddhist era, This new era saw the rise of two remarkable preachers, both from noble families, who gave up their possessions to lead lives of spiritualism and simplicity. One was a prince of the Sakya clan called Siddhartha Gautama who left his home and wandered for six years, finally achieving nirvana (enlightenment). He became known as the Buddha, or “Enlightened One.” He died at the age of 80 in 480 BC but his teachings spread throughout southern and eastern Asia and are followed across the world today. The other was Vardhamana, who was similarly renamed Mahavira (“great hero”) and whose followers were known as Jains. Both Buddhists and Jains rejected the rigid caste system of the Aryan Hindus. This, and their belief in nonviolence and social equality, gained them many followers.
The Invasion of Alexander (327 BC - 325 BC)
In 326 BC, The horse Bucephalas carried Alexander as far as to India, in his epic march from Greece, Within two years, Alexander expanded the Macedonian Empire to include present-day Punjab and Sindh in what is modern-day Pakistan, Noteworthy of the Indians’ attempts at war, was the use of elephants, something that the Macedonians had never seen before. 'Upon this the elephants, applying to good use their prodigious size and strength, killed some of the enemy by trampling under their feet, and crushing their armour and their bones, while upon other they inflicted a terrible death, for they first lifted them aloft with their trunks, which they twisted round their bodies and then dashed them down with great violence to the ground. Many others they deprived in a moment of life by goring them through and through with their tusks. The foot soldiers carry a bow made of equal length with the man who bears it. This they rest upon the ground, and pressing against it with their left foot thus discharges the arrow, having drawn the string far backwards for the shaft they use is little short for three yards long, and there is nothing can resist an Indian archer's shot, neither shield nor breast plate, nor any stronger defence if such there be. His bellowed horse died in battle on a single blow Fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his troops refused to march further than the Beas River a 470 Km long river in Punjab, the easternmost extent of the Persian empire he had conquered, and he turned back without extending his power into India itself. This river thus marks the easternmost extent of Alexander's conquests.
The Mauryas and the Gupta empires
The Mauryas and the Guptas have left a lasting legacy. The Maurya an empire (322–185 ) began with Chandragupta Maurya, a warrior king. He extended his empire from the east to the northwest, after defeating one of Alexander the Great’s generals. Chandragupta’s grandson, Ashoka, became the greatest Maurya ruler of all. The Maurya empire then broke up into smaller kingdoms until the 4th century , when the Hindu king, Chandragupta I, established the Gupta empire, a “Golden Age” that lasted more than 200 years. Under Emperor Ashoka, one of the classic figures of Indian history, it reached its peak. Ashoka was later strongly influenced by Buddhist ideals. In 262 BC Ashoka was converted to Buddhism. He had edicts (rules), instructing his subjects in the importance of nonviolence and correct ethical behaviour, inscribed on stone pillars throughout the country.Throughout his kingdom he left pillars and rock-carved edicts which delineate to this day the enormous span of his empire. Ashokan edicts and pillars can be seen in Delhi, in Gujarat, in Orissa, at Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh and at Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh.
Ashoka also sent missions abroad; in Sri Lanka his name is revered since he sent his brother as a missionary to carry Buddhism to that land. The development of art and sculpture also flourished during his rule, and his standard, which topped many of his pillars, is now the seal of the modern state of India. The Mauryas & Ashoka Two centuries before Alexander made his long march east, an Indian kingdom had started to develop in the north of India. It expanded into the vacuum created by Alexander's departure when Chandragupta Maurya's empire came to power in 321 BC. From its capital at the site of present- day Patna, the Mauryan empire eventually spread across northern India. Under Ashoka the Mauryan empire controlled more of India than probably any subsequent ruler prior to the British. Following his death in 232 BC the empire rapidly disintegrated and finally collapsed in 184 BC.
In 319 AD Chandragupta founded the Gupta empire, The Gupta period has been referred to as the Golden Age of Indian history. When Chandragupta I received the gift of Pataliputra in dowry when he married the daughter of the chief of the ‘Licchavis’, he started to lay down the foundation of his empire, which extended from the river Ganga to the city of Allahabad. He ruled for 15 years and was also referred to as the ‘king of kings’ for his strategic conquests and the flourishing state of India. His successors extended their power over northern India, first from Patna and later from other capitals in north India, such as Ayodhya. The Imperial Guptas gave way to the later Guptas in 455 AD but the Gupta period continued to 606 AD. The arts flourished during this period, with some of the finest work being done at Ajanta, Ellora, Sanchi and Sarnath, and poetry and literature also experienced a golden age. Towards the end of the Gupta period, however, Buddhism and Jainism both began to decline and Hinduism began to rise. North India broke up into a number of separate Hindu kingdoms and was not really unified again until the coming of the Muslims.
For more than a thousand years, from the end of the Gupta empire to the coming of the Muslims, no single dynasty was able to establish an empire in the subcontinent. North India remained in a state of turmoil with different factions competing for power. The final blow to the Gupta dynasty was dealt by the Huns, a military tribe from central Asia, who repeatedly invaded from the northwest and established their rule at the end of the 5th century . They did not rule for long and were displaced by a succession of rulers. The only memorable king of that time is Harshavardhana ( 606-647), who conquered many parts of north and east India. For the next four centuries, a handful of local kingdoms battled for supremacy, with no clear winner. Taking advantage of this, the Turkish warlord, Mohammad Ghori, defeated the Rajput king of Delhi, Prithviraj Chauhan, in 1192. Ghori’s general, Qutbuddin Aibak, established the first of many Muslim dynasties, which reached their height with the Mughals later. The last of the ancient kingdoms in India was by the king Harshavardhana, who ascended the throne at Thanneshwar and Kannauj after his brother died. While successful in a few of his conquests, he eventually got defeated by the Chalukya Kingdom of Deccan India. Harshavardhana was well-known for establishing relations with the Chinese, and also for having high religious tolerance and strong administrative capabilities.
The Mughals
The fifth-century saw the unification of India under Ashoka, who had converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread in many parts of Asia. In the eighth century, Islam came to India for the first time and by the eleventh century had firmly established itself in India as a political force. It resulted in the formation of the Delhi Sultanate, which was finally succeeded by the Mughal Empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity. The mugals where one of the world’s great medieval dynasties. Babur was the first Mughal ruler. He invaded from the plains of central Asia in 1526, and his descendants then ruled for over 200 years. By the end of the 17th century, the empire covered almost the entire country, apart from the extreme southern tip. The Mughals brought many new ideas with them in apart from relegion such as architecture, warfare, and the arts. Many of India’s best known monuments, such as the Taj Mahal, are Islamic structures built by the Mughals. When the last great emperor, Aurangzeb, died in 1707, the empire declined and it was soon replaced by British rule. Only Ashoka is as giant a figure in Indian history as the Moghul emperors.
These larger-than-life individuals ushered in another Indian golden age and spread their control over India to an extent rivalled only by Ashoka and the British. Their rise to power was rapid but the decline was equally quick; there were only six great Moghuls. After Aurangzeb the rest were emperors in name only. The Moghuls did more than simply rule, however; they had a passion for building which resulted in some of the great buildings in India - Shah Jahan's magnificent Taj Mahal ranks as one of the greatest buildings in the world. Art and literature also flourished under the Moghuls and the magnificence of their court stunned early European visitors. The smaller states which followed on from the Moghul empire did in some cases continue for a while. In the south the viceroyalty ni Hyderabad became one of the British-tolerated princely states and survived right through to independence. The Nawabs of Oudh in north India ruled eccentrically, flamboyantly and badly until 1854 when the British 'retired' the last Nawab. In Bengal the Moghuls unwisely clashed with the British far earlier and their rule was terminated by the Battle of Plassey in 1757
The Maratha and The Rajputs
Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, Tales of his larger- than-life exploits are popular with wandering storytellers in small villages. King Shivaji used the guerrilla tactics to capture a part of, the then, dominant Mughal empire. Moghul power was not simply supplanted by another, greater power. It fell through a series of factors and to a number of other rulers. Not least of these were the Marathas. Throughout the Mughal period in the north of India there were still strong Hindu powers, most notably the Rajputs.
Centred in Rajasthan, the Rajputs were a sort of warrior caste. The Rajputs opposed every foreign foot that tried to walk into India but were never united or organized in any fashion; when not battling foreign oppression they fought each other. During the Moghul era some of the best military men in the emperor's army were Rajputs. The Marathas first rose to prominence with Shivaji, who took over his father's kingdom and between 1646 and 1680 performed feats of arms and heroism all over central India. . He is a particular hero in Maharashtra, where many of his wildest exploits took place, but is also revered for two other things: He showed that great leaders do not have to be Brahmins, and he demonstrated great abilities in confronting the Moghuls. At one time Shivaji was even captured by the Moghuls and taken back tot Agra but, naturally, he managed to escape and continue his adventures. Shivaji's son was captured, blinded and executed by Aurangzeb , but the Maratha empire continued under the Peshwas, hereditary government ministers who became the real rulers.
They gradually took over more and more of the weakening Moghul empire's powers, first by supplying troops and then by actually taking control of Moghul land. When Nadir Shah from Persia sacked Delhi in 1739, the declining Moghuls were even further weakened, but the expansion of Maratha power came to an abrupt halt in 1761 at Panipat. the Marathas were defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani from Afghanistan their expansion to the west halted, they nevertheless consolidated their control over central India and their region known as Malwa. Soon, however, they were to fall out of India's final great imperial power, the British.
MEANWHILE IN SOUTH
In the south of India took a different path than in the north. Just as the Aryan invasions never reached the south .Southern India, especially the Malabar coast and the kingdom of Vijayanagara, received many European visitors during the transition from the Middle Ages to modern times. Their travel narratives and chronicles provide a unique insight into the encounter between Europeans and a non-Christian, non-Muslim civilization, which they neither wished to ignore nor were able to dominate.
Sangam Period
The history of southern India covers a span of over four thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. Sangam age was believed to be between 300 BCE to 300 CE. but has been pushed to 800 BCE based on the archaeological findings from the first two phases of excavation carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India in this Keeladi, a sleepy hamlet along the Vaigai river, about 13 km from Madurai, Tamil Nadu. Tamil literature of the Sangam period is the oldest native source that supplies relevant material for ancient South Indian history and South Indian kings. In 1578, Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named Thambiran Vanakkam, thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published The Sangam period, represents a golden age in the history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka, collectively known as Tamilakam. While our understanding of the period isn't entirely clear-cut, it's nonetheless fascinating Traditionally, three Sangam academies are spoken of – the Head Sangam, Middle Sangam, and Last Sangam (or Third Sangam) – each lasting millennia. However, modern historians primarily focus on the Third Sangam as the period with confirmed historical evidence.
Keeladi excavation
These academies served as intellectual and artistic hubs, patronized by the Pandya kings of Madurai. Renowned poets, scholars, and musicians graced these halls, composing and compiling the vast and vibrant tapestry of Sangam literature. Sangam literature encompasses over 23,000 verses across genres like epics, lyrics, didactic poems, and anthologies. Notable works include "Silappadhikaram," "Manimekalai," "Purananuru," and "Akananuru."These writings offer invaluable insights into the social, political, economic, and cultural life of Tamilakam during the Sangam period. Vivid descriptions of agriculture, trade, festivals, warfare, and everyday life paint a rich picture of this ancient civilization. Sangam poetry often celebrates the beauty of nature, particularly the monsoons and various landscapes of Tamilakam. Love poetry, known as aham, explores intricate emotions and relationships with poignant beauty. The Sangam period witnessed the rise and fall of three powerful dynasties – the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. Each dynasty had its own territory, capital, and unique emblems, with occasional alliances and rivalries shaping the political dynamics.
Tamilakam flourished as a vibrant centre of trade. Roman and other foreign ships frequented ports like Muziris and Korkai, seeking spices, pearls, and other prized goods. This international trade fuelled economic growth and cultural exchange. Sangam literature holds immense importance in shaping and preserving the Tamil language and identity. Even today, it's actively studied, recited, and adapted, connecting modern Tamils to their rich cultural heritage. The themes and characters of Sangam literature continue to inspire contemporary artists, writers, and filmmakers.
Chera Kingdom
Vadakkunathan Temple, Thrissur
The Chera kingdom, alongside the Cholas and Pandyas, formed a triumvirate that shaped the history of ancient South India. Their story, spanning roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 12th century CE, is one of maritime prowess, cultural influence, and complex political interactions. The Cheranad corresponded to the modern districts of Thiruvanathapuram and Cochin in Kerala, and Coimbatore and a part of Salem in Tamilnadu. It was bound on the north by the Palani hills and on the south by the sea. The first Chera King, For the earliest Chera known to Tamil literature, we have to go to Purananuru 2. He is Ceraman Perum Sorru Udiyan Ceralatan which is celebrated in song by Muranciyur Mudinagarayar puram 2 During the Sangam period (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), the Cheras were a prominent maritime power. They controlled key trade routes along the Malabar Coast, engaging in lucrative commerce with Romans and other regions. Many Greek and Latin writers from the 4th century B. C. refer to the Cheras as the kings of the west coast port and emporium of the ancient Chera kingdom, and of its brisk seaborne trade with Egypt and the ancient empires in Europe.
The teak was found in the ruins of Mughier, which only existed not later than 3,000 years B. C. was identified to be of the Chera hills of the west coast. Very probably the peacock, ivory, black pepper, ginger, cinnamon, precious stones, and other exotic goods of merchandise which according to the Hebrew books of kings and chronicles were imported in Solomon's ships came from the Chera coast lands. The import of gold to Muziris and export of pepper in exchange.7 H.G. Rawlinson, like other scholars, underlines the favourable milieu in the Roman Empire for the development of maritime and intercontinental trade after the nexation of Egypt to the Empire in 30 BCE. The writings of Strabo were consulted by him to discuss the details of the number of ships (120 ships) that left from Myos Hormos, the Egyptian port, to India every year. M.P. Charlesworth in his book, Trade-Routes and Commerce of the Roman Empire, devotes a chapter to a discussion of the sea route to India and Ceylon. He refers to the works of Strabo and Ptolemy and also the Periplus of Erythraean Sea. He adds that ships leaving Egypt in July reached the Indian ports by the end of September and returned from India by the end of November and arrived at Alexandria in February.
The necessary things for facilitating trade and offering security to the traders and their vessels/merchandise were provided by the Roman rulers especially since the time of Augustus. formation available in classical writings in Greek, Latin and Tamil prompted research scholars to identify the ports and throw light on the dynamics of maritime trade between India and Rome by retrieving material evidence through scientific excavations after explorations, collection of surface findings and digging trial pits. The pioneering attempt to locate a Roman settlement and centre of trade was made in Arikamedu on the eastern coast of peninsular India.
Arikamedu ruins
The earliest reference to the ancient ruins in Arikamedu is found in the accounts of a French astronomer, Guillaume Le Gentil who was in Pondicherry in 1768-71. He makes mention of 10-ft high walls built with large-sized bricks on the high bank of the Ariyankuppam River and also of terracotta ring wells which could be dated back to the first century BCE and first century CE. But Exact location still debated, although some archaeological evidence points to present-day Kodungallur and North Paravoor in Kerala. This Muziris port was a fascinating and enigmatic trading hub in ancient India, with a history shrouded in mystery and legend. Gradually vanished from historical records by the 14th century Notable Rulers like Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan, and Senguttuvan Chera are celebrated for their conquests, patronage of Sangam literature, and maritime expeditions. The 7th and 8th centuries saw repeated clashes with the Pandyas, leading to territorial losses and the eventual split of the Chera kingdom into two branches: Kongu Cheras: Ruled the eastern parts of Kerala and the Kongu region, with Karur as their capital. Chera Perumals: Established themselves in central Kerala, with Vanchi and Kulasekharapuram as important centers.
Despite the political challenges, this period witnessed the Chera's continued patronage of art and literature. They built magnificent temples like the Vadakkumnathan Temple in Thrissur and promoted Malayalam language and literature. The Chera kingdoms weakened further due to internal conflicts and pressure from the Hoysalas and Pandyas. Gradually, they integrated into other regional powers, leaving behind a rich cultural legacy. The Cheras were pioneers in maritime trade, establishing strong links with the Roman world and influencing Indian Ocean commerce. Their patronage of Sangam literature, temple architecture, and Malayalam language significantly shaped South Indian culture. The Chera kingdom, though often overshadowed by the Cholas and Pandyas, played a crucial role in shaping the political, economic, and cultural landscape of ancient South India. Their legacy continues to inspire and fascinate historians and cultural enthusiasts.
Chola Dynasty
tanjavore temple
The Chola Kingdom was a powerful Tamil dynasty that ruled over southern India for a staggering period, stretching from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. Their kingdom covered a large part of South India, including Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Their story is one of conquest, cultural advancements, and architectural marvels. While the exact origins remain shrouded in mystery, they find mention in Ashoka's edicts of the 3rd century BCE. Their early kingdom centered around the fertile Kaveri (Cauvery) River valley. Vijayalaya Chola, in the 9th century CE, is credited with laying the foundation for the Chola empire by capturing Thanjavur. His successors, Aditya I and Parantaka I, expanded the territory significantly, defeating Pallavas, Pandyas, and Rashtrakutas.Rajaraja I (985-1014 CE) and Rajendra I (1014-1044 CE) ushered in the golden age of the Chola empire. Rajaraja conquered large parts of southern India and parts of Sri Lanka, establishing a strong naval presence. Rajendra I further extended the empire to Southeast Asia, establishing diplomatic relations with China. The Cholas established a centralized administration with a well-organized bureaucracy.
They promoted irrigation and agriculture, resulting in economic prosperity. Trade flourished through their powerful navy, connecting them to the spice routes and beyond. After the reigns of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, the empire faced internal conflicts and external challenges. .The Chola period saw a flourishing of Tamil literature, with renowned works like the epic Silappadhikaram. Chola art reached its zenith in temple architecture, with masterpieces like the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur and the Airavatesvara Temple in Thanjavur. Chola bronzes, depicting various deities and figures, are revered for their exquisite craftsmanship and attention to detail. The Chola kingdom left an indelible mark on Indian history. Their empire, achievements in administration, economic prosperity, and artistic contributions continue to inspire generations.The Chola dynasty's reign spanned nearly four centuries, leaving behind a magnificent legacy in the realm of art. Their artistic achievements not only showcased their technical prowess and aesthetic sensibilities but also served as powerful tools for religious expression, political legitimization, and cultural propagation.
While the Pallava's laid the groundwork, the Cholas refined and transformed their architectural and artistic styles. They further incorporated influences from Gupta art, Dravidian traditions, and even Southeast Asian motifs encountered during their conquests. Chola bronze sculptures are considered pinnacles of artistic mastery. Depicting deities, mythical figures, and dancers with exquisite detail and lifelike proportions, these bronzes reveal a profound understanding of anatomy and movement. They were crafted using the lost-wax casting technique, a testament to the artisans' exceptional skill. Chola temples are iconic structures, renowned for their intricate carvings, towering gopurams (gateway towers), and towering vimana (sanctum sanctorum). The Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur stands as a prime example, boasting a monolithic vimana carved from a single granite boulder. Other notable temples include the Airavatesvara Temple and the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, each showcasing distinct architectural styles and intricate embellishments. Though less numerous compared to sculptures and architecture, Chola mural paintings have also captivated attention. Fragmented remains found in temples like the Brihadisvara Temple showcase vibrant colours, expressive figures, and narratives from Hindu mythology and epics.
Chola art functioned as a powerful tool for expressing and propagating Hinduism. Temple architecture and sculptures served as visual narratives, depicting deities, mythological stories, and rituals. The grandeur and sophistication of Chola art served to solidify the dynasty's power and establish their cultural dominance. Their imposing temples and exquisite sculptures acted as symbols of their wealth, piety, and artistic acumen. Chola artistic influences spread beyond their borders, impacting Southeast Asian countries like Cambodia and Thailand. Trade and military campaigns carried their architectural and sculptural styles, contributing to the cross-pollination of artistic ideas.The rise of Pandyas and Hoysalas ultimately led to the decline of the Chola empire, culminating in their downfall in the 13th century Today, Chola art continues to mesmerize audiences worldwide. Their temples stand as living testaments to their architectural genius, while their bronzes grace museums and private collections as masterpieces of Indian art. The Chola dynasty's artistic legacy not only serves as a window into their vibrant culture and religious beliefs but also inspires contemporary artists and architects with its enduring beauty and technical perfection.
Pandya Kingdom
Thousand Pillar at Madurai
They ruled over a large territory that included parts of present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Sri Lanka. The Pandyas were a powerful force in the Indian subcontinent for over 1,000 years, and their legacy continues to be felt today. The Pandyas are first mentioned in the Sangam literature of the 3rd century BCE. At that time, they were a minor kingdom based in the Korkai region of southern Tamil Nadu. However, they soon began to expand their power, and by the 6th century CE, they had become one of the dominant powers in South India. The Pandyas reached their peak of power during the 9th to 13th centuries CE. Under the rule of kings such as Maravarman Sundara I, Sundara Chola, and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya, the Pandya kingdom extended from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. The Pandyas were known for their strong military, their patronage of the arts, and their maritime prowess. The Pandya kingdom was a major patron of the arts, and their contributions to art and architecture are still evident today. The Pandyas were particularly known for their patronage of temple building, and they constructed many magnificent temples throughout their kingdom.
The Pandya temples are known for their elaborate carvings and sculptures. The sculptures often depict scenes from Hindu mythology and epics, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The temples also feature intricate carvings of animals, flowers, and other motifs. Meenakshi Amman Temple was build in this period is dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi and her consort, Sundareswarar. It is one of the largest and most important temples in South India. Srirangam temple is dedicated to the god Vishnu.
srirangam Temple
It is the largest temple complex in the world, and it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The Pandyas were also skilled sculptors, and they produced many beautiful sculptures in bronze and stone. The bronze sculptures are particularly well-known for their realism and detail. The Nataraja bronze sculpture depicts the god Shiva in his dance of creation and destruction. Natyanjali bronze sculpture depicts the goddess Saraswati in her dance of learning and music. It is another famous Pandya sculpture, and it is housed in the National Museum in Chennai. Durga bronze: sculpture depicts the goddess Durga in her battle against the demon Mahishasura. It is housed in the Kalakshetra Foundation in Chennai. The Pandyas also supported other arts, such as music and dance. They established schools of music and dance, and they sponsored performances of music and dance. The Pandyas also patronized literature, and they commissioned many works of Tamil literature. The Pandyas were a powerful military force, and they were able to defeat their rivals, the Cholas and Cheras, to become the dominant power in South India.
The Pandyas were a powerful maritime force, and they controlled key trade routes in the Indian Ocean.The Pandya kingdom began to decline in the 14th century CE. They were weakened by internal conflicts and by the rise of new powers such as the Vijayanagara Empire. The Pandyas finally fell to the Vijayanagara Empire in the 16th century CE. The Pandyas' legacy continues to be felt today in South India. Their temples and other monuments are still visited by pilgrims and tourists, and their stories are still told in Tamil literature and culture.
Thiruvithamkoor Kingdom
Kanyakumari Palace
The Travancore Kingdom, also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was fascinating and long-lasting in southern India, boasting a rich history and significant cultural contributions. Emerged in the 1720s, with roots in the Venad kingdom and Padmanabhapuram as its initial capital. Gained prominence under Marthanda Varma, who consolidated power through conquests and strategic alliances, eventually shifting the capital to Thiruvananthapuram. The 19th century witnessed the kingdom's peak, with rulers like Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma and Sree Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma fostering significant development. Administrative reforms led to a prosperous economy, with emphasis on agriculture, trade, and infrastructure. The kingdom became a hub for arts and culture, supporting Carnatic music, Kathakali dance, and the development of Malayalam literature. Renowned for its tolerance and coexistence of Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam, reflected in its architectural marvels like Padmanabhaswamy Temple and St. Joseph's Seminary.
The Padmanabhaswamy Temple, nestled in the heart of Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, is not just a magnificent architectural marvel but also a treasure trove of history and legend. Its story, spanning centuries, intertwines with the rise and fall of kingdoms, tales of mythical beings, and the discovery of unimaginable wealth. While exact dates remain debated, historical accounts and temple records suggest the temple's origin could date back to 8th century CE. The temple gained prominence during the Chera dynasty, flourishing as a centre of pilgrimage and receiving royal patronage. In the 18th century, Marthanda Varma, the founder of the Travancore Kingdom, dedicated his kingdom to Lord Padmanabha Swami, solidifying the temple's importance and declaring himself a humble servant of the deity. In 2011, the Supreme Court of India ordered the opening of six hitherto unopened chambers within the temple, leading to the discovery of immense wealth – While vault B remains unopened,
vaults A, C, D, E, and F were opened. Among the reported findings, are a three-and-a-half feet tall solid pure golden idol of god Mahavishnu, studded with hundreds of diamonds and rubies and other precious stones. Also found were an 18-foot-long pure gold chain, a gold sheaf weighing 500 kg (1,100 lb), a 36 kg (79 lb) golden veil, 1200 'Sarappalli' gold coin-chains that are encrusted with precious stones, and several sacks filled with golden artefacts, necklaces, diadems, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, gemstones, and objects made of other precious metals. Ceremonial attire for adorning the deity in the form of 16-part gold anki weighing almost 30 kilograms (66 lb), gold "coconut shells" studded with rubies and emeralds, and several 18th century Napoleonic era coins were found amongst many other objects. According to Vinod Rai, the former Comptroller-and-Auditor-General (CAG) of India, who had audited some of the Temple records from 1990, in August 2014, in the already opened vault A, there is an 800 kg (1,800 lb) hoard of gold coins dating to around 200 BCE, each coin priced at over ₹2.7 crore (US$340,000).
Also found was a pure golden throne, studded with hundreds of diamonds and other precious stones, As per one of the men, who was among those that went inside this Vault A, several of the largest diamonds were as large as a full-grown man's thumb. Following India's independence in 1947, Travancore acceded to the Indian Union in 1949, becoming part of the state of Kerala. The royal family still retains its cultural and religious significance, though their political power transitioned to a modern democratic system. Travancore's legacy lives on through its architectural wonders, vibrant cultural traditions, and its pioneering role in social reforms, influencing Kerala's identity and contributing to India's diverse tapestry.
Samoothiri Kingdom
artist imagination of samoothiri and vascodagama
The Samoothiri kingdom, also known as the Kingdom of Calicut / Zamorin, was a fascinating chapter in the history of Kerala, India. Spanning nearly six centuries, from the 12th to the 18th century, it witnessed a rise to maritime power, encounters with European explorers, and ultimately, integration into the Indian Union. The Samoothiris originated from the Eranad region in northern Kerala, initially ruling as a minor princedom. Their rise began in the 13th century, expanding their territory and establishing Calicut as a key port city on the spice route. By the 15th century, the Samoothiri were at the peak of their power. They controlled a vast region encompassing most of present-day northern and central Kerala, with Calicut becoming a bustling center of trade. The city attracted merchants from across the globe, particularly Arabs and Europeans, eager for spices like pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. The Samoothiri levied heavy taxes on this trade, further enriching their kingdom. The arrival of Vasco da Gama in 1498 marked a turning point.
While initially welcoming, the Samoothiris relationship with the Portuguese soured due to trade monopolies and religious conflicts. Subsequent European powers like the Dutch and the English also arrived, vying for control of the lucrative spice trade. The Samoothiri kingdom boasted a formidable naval force that played a crucial role in its rise to power and its resistance to European colonization. The Samoothiris navy comprised a diverse fleet of vessels, including large warships known as 'patallam' and smaller, maneuverable 'chundan' warships. These ships were equipped with cannons, swords, shields, and other weaponry, making them a formidable force on the Indian Ocean. The Samoothiri navy often collaborated with Muslim privateers known as 'Marakkars,' particularly the Kunjali Marakkars who became legendary figures in Indian naval history. The Samoothiri navy effectively protected Calicut's trade routes, ensuring its control over the lucrative spice trade and safeguarding its economic prosperity. It defended the Malabar coast from Portuguese encroachments in the 16th and 17th centuries, engaging in numerous battles and employing guerrilla tactics to resist colonization. The Samoothiri navy played a role in diplomatic relations, escorting envoys and maintaining ties with other kingdoms and trading partners.
The Samoothiri navy's innovative tactics and fierce resistance influenced naval warfare in the region, inspiring other kingdoms to resist European dominance. The legacy of the Kunjali Marakkars remains celebrated in Kerala as symbols of courage and resilience against colonial powers. The navy's contribution to maritime trade and cultural exchange helped shape Kerala's diverse heritage and its important role in Indian Ocean history. The 17th and 18th centuries saw increasing internal conflicts within the Samoothiri kingdom, further hampered by the rise of neighbouring Mysore. In the late 18th century, the Samoothiri sought British assistance, ultimately ceding significant control to the East India Company. By the 19th century, the kingdom had become a princely state within the British Raj. Despite its eventual decline, the Zamorin kingdom's legacy lives on in various ways.The Samoothiri title continues to be held by a royal family, though without their former political power. The kingdom's role in shaping Kerala's and indian maritime history and its interactions with the wider world remain deeply ingrained in the state's identity.
Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire, also known as the Karnata Kingdom, was a magnificent chapter in South Indian history. From its humble beginnings in the 14th century to its powerful reign and eventual decline in the 17th century, its story is one of resilience, artistic achievement, and political intrigue. Following the devastating invasions of the Delhi Sultanate, two brothers, Harihara and Bukka Raya, rallied the remnants of Hindu kingdoms and established the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336 CE. Their capital, named Vijayanagara (City of Victory), was strategically located on the Tungabhadra River, offering natural defences and control over trade routes. The Vijayanagara Empire grew into a dominant force, encompassing much of present-day South India. Rulers like Devaraya II and Krishnadevaraya expanded the territory, repelled Muslim invasions, and established diplomatic relations with the Ming Dynasty of China. The empire thrived on a prosperous economy fuelled by agriculture, trade (particularly in spices), and thriving merchant guilds. This prosperity enabled the construction of magnificent temples, palaces, and public infrastructure. Vijayanagara was a vibrant centre of art and culture. Sanskrit literature flourished, and Telugu and Kannada languages also saw a golden age. The empire's architectural legacy is breathtaking.
The ruins of Hampi, the former capital, showcase intricate carvings, towering gopurams (gateways), and massive temples like the Virupaksha Temple and the Hazara Rama Temple. Hampi, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Ballari district of Karnataka, India. It's not just a city, but rather a collection of ancient ruins and temples that hold the captivating story of the Vijayanagara Empire. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Hampi served as the opulent capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, a powerful kingdom in South India. Today, Hampi is a sprawling archaeological wonder, covering over 41 square kilometres. It's considered one of the largest open-air museums in the world. We can find remnants of temples, palaces, markets, fortifications, and public amenities, showcasing the empire's artistic and technological prowess. Each ruin whispers tales of grandeur, resilience, and the vibrant life that once flowed through the streets. Hampi isn't just about the archaeological past. It's also a vibrant present home to local communities who have preserved their traditional lifestyle and craftmanship. We can witness their artistry in vibrant silk sarees, handcrafted stone souvenirs, and the mesmerizing performances of Bharatanatyam and Yakshagana dance forms. Exploring Hampi is a journey through time and history. It allows you to connect with the grandeur of a bygone era, marvel at architectural brilliance, and appreciate the continuity of local culture. Internal conflicts and rising competition from regional powers weakened the empire. The devastating Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, against a coalition of Deccan Sultanates, dealt a severe blow to Vijayanagara's power. While the empire continued for another century, it gradually disintegrated, leaving behind its remarkable legacy. The empire's impact on South India is undeniable. It helped preserve Hindu culture and traditions during a period of Muslim dominance. Its architectural marvels continue to inspire and attract tourists from around the world.
Arrival of the Europeans
Kappad Beach
Since the 14th century, Indian silks and spices had been brought into Europe by Arab merchants. But when the Turks captured Constantinople in 1453, blocking this overland trade route, Europe was forced to look for other routes to the East. Christopher Columbus set out on this quest, but took a wrong turn and “discovered” America instead. The Portuguese seafarer Vasco da Gama was luckier and arrived on the shores of Kerala, India in 1498, closely followed by the English, Dutch, and French. The Dutch and English East India Companies were set up in the early 1600s to supply textiles and spices to the growing European market. India was seen as a source of huge potential wealth, and was fiercely fought over. They took a keen interest in the resources that India had to offered and have been looked back at as plunderers of India’s wealth of resources - as they took cotton, spices, silk, and tea, amongst numerous other resources. Europeans coincided with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, paving the way for regional states During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, the European trading companies in India competed with each other ferociously.
By the last quarter of the 18th Century, the English had outdone all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British were not the first European power to arrive in India, nor were they the last to leave - both goes go to the Portuguese. In 1498 Vasco da Gama arrived o n the coast of modern-day Kerala, having sailed around the African Cape of Good Hope. Pioneering this route gave the Portuguese a century of uninterrupted monopoly over Indian trade with Europe. In 1510 they captured Goa, the Indian enclave they controlled right through to 1961, 14 years after the British had left.
The British Raj
During the 100 years following Robert Clive’s victory at Plassey , the British extended their control over India on every front economic, political, military, and social. They quelled local uprisings, the most important being the “mutiny” of 1857 when Indian troops took up arms against their British. The British Raj was established a year later, as the country was finally brought under full imperial rule by Queen Victoria and was governed from London. The 19th century industrial revolution thrived by importing cheap, raw materials from India, and selling expensive, manufactured products back to the colony. The British drained India’s wealth, and denied political rights to its people, constructed railroads, and set up a centralized administrative and judicial system. but it also politically united the country, The Marathas were the only real Indian power to step into this gap and they were more a group of local kingdoms who sometimes cooperated, sometimes did not, than a power in their own right. In the south, where Moghul influence had never been so great, the picture was confused by the strong British-French rivalries with one ruler consistently played of against another.
This was never clearer than in the series of Mysore Wars with that irritation In the 4th Mysore War in 1789-99, Tipu was killed at Srirangapatnam and British power took another step forward, French influence another step back. The long-running British struggle with the Marathas was finally concluded in 1803, which left only the Punjab outside British control; that, too, came under British control in 1849 after the two Sikh Wars. Britain also took on the Nepalese, whom they defeated but did not annexe, and the Burmese, whom they did. Rise & Fall of British India By the early 19th century India was effectively under British control. In part this takeover had come about because of the vacuum left by the demise of the Moghuls, but the British also followed the rules Akbar had laid down so success-fully. To them India was principally a place to make money, and the Indians' culture, beliefs and religions were left strictly alone. Even under the British, India remained a patchwork of states, many of them nominally independent but actually under strong British influence. This policy of maintaining princely states' governed by Maharajas, Nawabs or whatever, continued right through out independence In 1857, a news leaked out that a new type of bullet issued to the troops, many of whom were similar rumor developed that the bullets were actually greased with cow & Pigs fats, The soldiers have to tear outer cover with their teeth to open. Pigs are unclean to Muslims and cows are holy to Hindus. The British were slow to deny these rumors and even slower to prove that either they were incorrect or that changes had been made.
The result was a loosely coordinated mutiny of the Indian battalions of the Bengal Army. Of the 74 battalions, seven (one of them Gurkhas) remained loyal, 20 were disarmed and the other 47 mutinied. The mutiny first broke out at Meerut, close to Delhi, and soon spread across north India. There were massacres and acts of senseless cruelty on both sides, long sieges, decisive victories and protracted struggles, but in the end the mutiny died out rather than conclusively finished. It never spread beyond the north of India, and although there were brilliant self-made leaders on the Indian side, there was never any real coordination or common aim. when in the First World War, Britain launched an attack on Germany , even though Indians did not wish millions of Indian soldiers were at the forefront of the British Indian Army during both the world wars - further fuelling the Indian resistance. Over a million Indian soldiers were killed in both the World Wars.
The British administered India for a period of about two centuries. While they did lay out a massive chunk of India’s infrastructure The British Raj was divisive and pit Indians against one another, on the basis of religion; and also mistreated the laborers. The Indians were essentially slaves of the British rule and were working hard without any returns on their work. This, naturally, led to multiple mutinies; and prominent freedom fighters came to the forefront. Different ideologies of thought believed that there were different ways of gaining freedom; however, they all had one common goal - freedom.
The struggle for freedom
Mahatma Gandhi
With the turn of the century, opposition to British rule began to take on a new light. The story of India's freedom struggle is not just about grand historical narratives and iconic figures. It's about the countless ordinary men and women who braved hardship, defied injustice, and kept the flame of hope burning bright. It's about the farmers who refused to pay unjust taxes, the students who boycotted colonial institutions, and the families who sacrificed their loved ones for the cause. The 'Congress' which had been established to give India a degree of self- rule now began to push for the real thing. Outside of the Congress more hot-blooded individuals pressed for independence by more revolutionary means. The role of communist ideology in the Indian freedom struggle was complex and multifaceted, marked by both collaboration and conflict with the broader nationalist movement. In the early 1920s, communist ideas began to take root in India, primarily among students and intellectuals drawn to their anti-colonial and anti-capitalist message.
The Communist Party of India (CPI) was formed in 1925, advocating for working-class revolution and complete independence from British rule. Initially, the CPI collaborated with the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, in their shared goal of ousting British rule. The CPI criticized Gandhi's focus on non-violent civil disobedience, advocating for more militant working-class uprisings. Despite the rift with the Congress, the CPI continued to organize workers' strikes, peasant revolts, and anti-colonial campaigns throughout the 1940s.The CPI also provided crucial support to underground movements and armed uprisings against British rule. In 1915 Mohandas Gandhi returned from South Africa, where he had practiced as a lawyer and devoted himself to righting the wrongs the country's many Indian settlers had to face. In India he soon turned his abilities to the question of independence, particularly after the massacre at Amritsar in 1919 when a British army contingent opened fire on an unarmed crowd of protestors. Gandhi, who subsequently became known as Mahatma, the 'great soul', adopted a policy of passive resistance or satyagraha to British rule millions of people took part in peaceful campaigns against foreign rule.
This shook the Raj to its foundations. His central achievement was to change the level of the independence struggle from the middle class to the village. He led movements against the iniquitous salt tax and boycotts of British textiles, and for his efforts made a number of visits to British prisons. Others involved in the struggle did not follow Gandhi's policy of non-cooperation and non-violence, and at times the battle was bitter and bloody. Nevertheless the Congress Party and Mahatma Gandhi were in the forefront, although it was not until after WW II that a conclusion was finally reached. By then independence was inevitable, as the war had dealt a death blow to colonialism and the myth of European superiority. Britain no longer had the power or the desire to maintain a vast empire
Independence
Refuges at the time of partition
The abrupt end of the war with the atomic bombing of Japan and the July 1945 and Labor party victory in the British election made the search for a solution to the Indian problem imperative. Elections within India revealed the obvious - The rise of Muslim nationalism in the early 20th century. Muslims, constituting a sizeable minority in British India, increasingly felt a distinct cultural and political identity separate from the Hindu majority. The Two-Nation Theory, propagated by the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that Muslims and Hindus constituted two distinct nations with incompatible interests. This fuelled demands for a separate Muslim state the country was split on purely religious grounds Mahatma Gandhi remained the father figure for Congress but without an official role and, as events were to prove, his political influence was slipping. 'I will have India divided, or India destroyed', were Jinnah's words. This direct conflict with Congress' desire for an independent greater-India was the biggest stumbling block to the British grant of independence, but with each passing day the prospects for inter- communal strife and bloodshed increased.
In early 1946 a British mission failed to bring the two sides together and the country slid increasingly towards civil war. In February 1947 the British government made a momentous decision. The current viceroy, Lord Wavell, would be replaced by Lord Louis Mountbatten and independence would come by June 1948. Already the Punjab region of northern India was in a state of chaos and the Bengal region in the east was close to it. The new viceroy made a last-ditch attempt to convince the rival factions that a united India was a more sensible proposition, but they - Jinnah in particular - remained intransigent and the reluctant decision was made to divide the country. Gandhi stood firmly against the division, preferring the possibility of a civil war to the chaos he so rightly expected. Attempts to reach a political compromise with the Muslim League by Mahatma Gandhi, also ultimately failed. . As in so many other parts of the world, neatly slicing the country in two proved to be an impossible task. Although some areas were clearly Hindu or Muslim, others had very evenly mixed populations, and still others remained isolated 'islands' of Muslims surrounded by Hindu regions no matter how the country was divided.
The complete impossibility of dividing all the Muslims from all the Hindus is illustrated by the fact that after partition India was still the third largest Muslim country in the world - only Indonesia and Pakistan had greater populations of Muslims. formulated by the British and reluctantly accepted by both parties, carved India into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. The Muslim-majority areas to the east and west became the new nation of Pakistan. Even today India has a greater Muslim population than any of the Arab countries or Turkey or Iran.
Free India
At the stroke of midnight, August 15 1947, British rule ended, and India became a free country. But along with the celebrations came great upheaval as the country itself was divided into two. This division, known as Partition, led to massive upheaval as Muslims moved to Pakistan, and Hindus and Sikhs fled to India. Millions were uprooted amidst violence and bloodshed. The interreligious hatred this caused was a source of great unhappiness to Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first prime minister, who supported Mahatma Gandhi’s belief that all religious groups should be welcomed in India. The Constitution of India came into effect in 1950, and declared that all Indians, regardless of religion, caste, or creed, were equal citizens of the new republic. In 1952, India held the first of many general elections, and became the world’s largest democracy, The Indian tricolour national flag was adopted in 1931 by the Indian National Congress party.
The saffron denotes courage and sacrifice; the green, faith and charity. The wheel in the center represents the Hindu and Buddhist idea of karma – meaning that good deeds will be rewarded and bad ones punished. Jawaharlal Nehru was leader of the Indian National Congress Party. He held the post of prime minister from 1947 until his death in 1964. When independence was finally declared, he made a brilliant speech, announcing that, “At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.” holds to this day.
